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160 Prancingwifenaked Naked Naked Fi Maritza Rodriguez Porn Prancing Wife Naked Wife Exposing Bare Naked Public Prancing Naked Outdoor Exhibitionist Gender Difference in History: Women in China and Japan Essay (Women in World History Curriculum)

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During China’s long revolutionary years the state both promoted and negated new roles for women. The most severe reaction against female activism was the Guomindang’s counter revolution, called the White Terror (1927 - 1928), when female activists were accused of being instigators of societal chaos. During Chiang Kai-shek’s relentless hunt for Communists, thousand of women were murdered and raped, including those who had simply bobbed their hair. The Communists, for their part, turned away from what they saw as bourgeois feminist reforms to attack the socioeconomic conditions they perceived as the source of all female oppressions. The idea was that once gender difference was erased, women would be freed to help spearhead the “new society.” Mao Zedong coined the phrase “Women Hold Up Half the Sky,” and set in motion a campaign to get women out of the home and into the work force. Selections from oral histories collected during the period illustrate his attempts to mobilize the lowest in society, the female peasant, so she could confront “feudal” fathers, husbands or landlords.

Ultimately, the need to develop a sense of solidarity between male and female peasants as both subjects of oppression resulted in criticizing concerns relating to women alone. Such was the fate of author Ding Ling, the most prominent female writer of her generation, whose attack on the sexist attitudes of her comrades resulted in suppression. The state also failed to deal with opposition to the progressive changes embodied in the Marriage Law of 1950, which granted young people the right to choose their own marriage partners, and women to initiate divorce and to inherit property.

Female-specific concerns continued to be ignored during the Cultural Revolution when equality between sexes was assumed and class war took center stage. In China’s post 1980 modernization efforts, new tensions have emerged as women are urged to return to their traditional roles at home and at work, and to “feminize” their physical appearance. At the same time, the old ideal of the worker who forsakes even family duties to selflessly contribute to society still holds. A new slogan, coined by a detractor to today’s modernization drive, claims that now “Women Hold Up Two Skies!” Propaganda posters dramatically illustrate these shifts from revolutionary times to today when, although over 80 percent of women work outside their homes and some participate in political activities, it is clear that habits established thousands of years ago do not easily disappear.

Women’s Work: Beliefs in gender difference find reflection in the age-old assignment of women to “women’s work,” and men to theirs. This can be seen in the predominance of women in the essential work of cloth production. The Zhou (Chou) period (1100-770 B.C.E. ) phrase “Men plow and women weave,” resoonated at different times throughout China’s history. In silk production, so vital to China’s trade and diplomacy, rested on the initial labor of women who cultivated the mulberry trees, raised the worms, extracted the silk thread from the cocoons, and spun and wove the cloth. Legends, such as that of Lady Hsi-Ling-Shih who is credited with the introduction of silkworm rearing and invention of the loom, illustrated women’s connection to this work as do poems, like the 11th century female poet Ch’ien T’ao’s lament that upper class, silken clad “beauties” knew or cared little “of a weaving girl,/ Sitting cold by her window/ Endlessly throwing her shuttle to and fro.”

During the expansion of trade during the China’s Song dynasty women were heavily recruited to work in the cotton and silk mills as spinners and weavers. In both China and Japan, it was women’s work in the textile industries which proved to be the key to industrial success. Japan’s burgeoning export trade in silk and cotton textiles, for example, was the result of the women who by the 1880’s had formed almost two-thirds of Japan’s industrial workforce. Many of the mill workers in both countries were girls who left poor rural homes to live in dorms. Short diary excerpts, songs, work contracts, and charts, dramatically describe the mill workers’ hard work, low wages, and attempts to improve their working conditions. Accounts also reveal that with an independent income, some women began to lead a more self-sufficient life. The unusual marriage resistance movement among some silk workers in South China was a particularly intriguing outcome of this independence.

The notion that women “have their place” in textile production persists today. Women are the major workforce in the South China mills and in globalized textile factories and clothing sweatshops world-wide. And the question of whether this sexual division of work marginalizes women, or offers them expanded opportunities, is still being debated.

Strong Legendary and Real Heroes: Counterbalancing beliefs about women’s place is the historic veneration of some powerful, albeit exceptional, women. Stories of warrior women such as Hua Mulan and various militant Ninja types appear regularly in classical Chinese fiction. In Japan, samurai women appear, like Tomoe Gozen who supposedly rode into battle alongside her husband during Gempei Wars, or Hojo Masako (1157-1225), wife of Japan’s first shogun, who directed armies and in effect ruled the Shogunate from the convent where she had “retired” after her husband’s death. Later, bands of women armed with the exclusively female sword called naginata, were called upon to defend their towns or castles. Japanese girls today still learn to use this long sword.

In the modern era, women have been honored for their militant participation during civil wars and the struggles against invaders. In the Taiping Rebellion mainly Hakka women with unbound feet fought both as soldiers and generals against the Manchu government. Women took up arms again in the Boxer Rebellion when young women organized themselves into militant “Red Lantern” groups. During the Cultural Revolution, the militancy of young female Red Guards attest to their willingness to become revolutionary heroes when struggling for what they perceived to be a just cause. Individual revolutionary female icons who have been held up as powerful figures for women to emulate include China’s Chiu Chin (Qiu Jin), who in 1907 was executed by the Manchu government, and Soong-li Ching (Soong Ching-ling), wife of Dr. Sun Yat-sen and champion of social justice and women’s liberation, and Deng Yingchao, an advocate of women’s rights and wife of Zhou Enlai. The societal admiration of female heroines such as these has helped justify the actions of the women who managed successfully to define new roles for themselves alongside men.

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(This essay is excerpted and modified from Teaching About Women in China and Japan, by Lyn Reese, found in Social Education, NCSS, March 2003.)

(the Ch’ien T’ao poem is from Kenneth Rexroth & Ling Chung, Women Poets of China, New Directions Book, 1972)